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Transmutation
Definition and Examples
How physicists and chemists learned to transmute elements
by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.
The word "transmutation" means something different to
a scientist, particularly a physicist or chemist, compared to the ordinary
usage of the term.
Transmutation
Definition
(trăns′myo͞o-tā′shən) (n) Latin transmutare --
"to change from one form into another."
To transmute is to change from one form or substance into
another; to transform or convert. Transmutation is the act or process of
transmuting.
There are multiple specific definitions of transmutation,
depending on the discipline.
1. In the general sense, transmutation is any transformation from
one form or species into another on.
2. (Alchemy) Transmutation is the conversion of base elements into precious
metals, such as gold or silver. The artificial production of gold, chrysopoeia,
was a goal of alchemists, who sough to develop a Philosopher's Stone that
would be capable of the transmutation.
The alchemists attempted to use chemical reactions to achieve
transmutation. They were unsuccessful because nuclear reactions are required.
3. (Chemistry) Transmutation is the conversion of one chemical element into
another. Element transmutation may occur either naturally or via a synthetic
route.
Radioactive decay, nuclear
fission, and nuclear fusion are natural
processes by which one element may become another.
Scientists most commonly transmute elements by bombarding the
nucleus of a target atom with particles, forcing the target to change its atomic number, and thus its
elemental identity.
Related
Terms: Transmute (v),
Transmutational (adj),
Transmutative (adj),
Transmutationist (n)Transmutation
Examples
The classic goal of alchemy was to turn the base metal lead into
the more valuable metal gold.
While alchemy did not achieve this goal, physicists and chemists
learned how to transmute elements.
For example, Glenn Seaborg made gold from bismuth in 1980. There
are reports that Seaborg also transmuted a minute quantity
of lead into gold, possibly en route via bismuth.
However, it's much easier to transmute gold into lead:
197Au + n → 198Au (half life 2.7 days) → 198Hg + n → 199Hg + n → 200Hg + n → 201Hg + n → 202Hg + n → 203Hg (half life 47 days) → 203Tl + n → 204Tl (half life 3.8 years) → 204Pb (half life 1.4x1017 years)
The Spallation Neutron Source has transmuted liquid
mercury into gold, platinum, and iridium, using particle
acceleration.
Gold may be made using a nuclear reactor by irradiating mercury
or platinum (producing radioactive isotopes).
If mercury-196 is used as the starting isotope, slow neutron
capture followed by electron capture can produce the single stable isotope,
gold-197.
Transmutation
History
The term transmutation may be traced back to the early days of
alchemy.
By the Middle Ages, attempts at alchemical transmutation were
outlawed and alchemists Heinrich Khunrath and Michael Maier exposed fraudulent
claims of chrysopoeia.
In the 18th century, alchemy was largely supplanted by the
science of chemistry, after Antoine Lavoisier and
John Dalton proposed atomic theory.
The first true observation of transmutation came in 1901, when
Frederick Soddy and Ernest Rutherford observed thorium
changing into radium via radioactive decay.
According to Soddy, he
exclaimed, "Rutherford, this is transmutation!"
To which Rutherford
replied, "For Christ's sake, Soddy, don't call it transmutation. They'll
have our heads off as alchemists!"
Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.
· Ph.D. in
biomedical sciences from the University of Tennessee at Knoxville - Oak Ridge
National Laboratory.
· Science
educator with experience teaching chemistry, biology, astronomy, and
physics at the high school, college, and graduate levels.
ThoughtCo and About Education chemistry expert
since 2001.
· Widely-published
graphic artist, responsible for printable periodic tables and other
illustrations used in science.
Experience
Anne Helmenstine, Ph.D. has covered
chemistry for ThoughtCo and About Education since 2001, and other sciences
since 2013. She taught chemistry, biology, astronomy, and physics at the high
school, college, and graduate levels. She has worked as a research scientist
and also abstracting and indexing diverse scientific literature for the
Department of Energy.
In addition to her work as a science writer, Dr.
Helmenstine currently serves as a scientific consultant, specializing in
problems requiring an interdisciplinary approach. Previously, she worked
as a research scientist and college professor.
Education
Dr. Helmenstine holds a Ph.D. in biomedical
sciences from the University of Tennessee at Knoxville and a B.A.
in physics and mathematics with a minor in chemistry from Hastings
College. In her doctoral work, Dr. Helmenstine developed ultra-sensitive
chemical detection and medical diagnostic tests.
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The
Cavendish Laboratory at the University of England is a research lab where
scientists performed transmutation experiments.
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