RADIO WAVES & CELL PHONE WAVES - The electromagnetic spectrum includes a variety of radio waves, set at specific frequency bands which allow for radio, television, microwave and other types of transmissions across these bands. Each of these frequencies consist of a packet of charged photons which propagate out as waves of different vibrating frequencies expressed in Hertz. The measurement of these frequencies comes from the German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, who first proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves. Radio and cellphone frequency bands can both transmit analog or digital signals. The Electromagnetic Spectrum comprises diverse bands of radiation which vibrate at different frequencies. Each of these particular kinds of radiation are measured in units of hertz cycles per second. In addition to radio waves and microwaves, the EM spectrum also includes infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. A radio transmission is electromagnetic radiation that is made up of electrical and magnetic fields perpendicular to one another. They both move as a wave, cycling at a specific frequency. Energy in the wave moves back and forth between the magnetic and electrical fields. A radio signal propagates from its point of transmission in a spherical shape, as with higher-frequency radio waves as a more focused, narrower beam. The radio frequency range begins with the Extremely Low Frequency band at 3 hertz and extends to the Extremely High Frequency band at 300 gigahertz. Cellular phone networks utilize multiple bands of EM spectrum, one of which is called UHF, or ultra-high frequency, sometimes known as microwave.

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Radio Waves & Cell Phone Waves

What Is the Difference Between Radio Waves & Cell Phone Waves?

By Peter De Conceicao

 

The electromagnetic spectrum includes a variety of radio waves, set at specific frequency bands which allow for radio, television, microwave and other types of transmissions across these bands.

Each of these frequencies consist of a packet of charged photons which propagate out as waves of different vibrating frequencies expressed in Hertz.

The measurement of these frequencies comes from the German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, who first proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves theorized by another scientist.

Radio and cellphone frequency bands can both transmit analog or digital signals.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The Electromagnetic Spectrum comprises diverse bands of radiation which vibrate at different frequencies.

Each of these particular kinds of radiation are measured in units of hertz cycles per second.

In addition to radio waves and microwaves, the EM spectrum also includes infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.

Radio Waves

A radio transmission is electromagnetic radiation that is made up of electrical and magnetic fields perpendicular to one another.

They both move as a wave, cycling at a specific frequency. Energy in the wave moves back and forth between the magnetic and electrical fields.

A radio signal propagates from its point of transmission in a spherical shape, as with higher-frequency radio waves as a more focused, narrower beam.

The radio frequency range begins with the Extremely Low Frequency band at 3 hertz and extends to the Extremely High Frequency band at 300 gigahertz.

The Microwave Band

Cellular phone networks utilize multiple bands of EM spectrum, one of which is called UHF, or ultra-high frequency, sometimes known as microwave.

The frequency range for microwave radiation is between 300 megahertz and 300 gigahertz.

UHF waves are also utilized in radar, microwave ovens and wireless local area networks.

Microwaves on the electromagnetic spectrum can be further divided into different bands, depending on the frequency.

Wave Propagation

Radio and microwave transmissions propagate differently from their point of origin.

Radio waves have a lower frequency and longer wavelength as compared to cell phone waves operating at higher microwave frequencies.

Microwaves can carry a higher amount of information than radio signals, and are transmitted in narrower beams which can be aimed and focused to a greater degree than radio waves.

Cellular Phones

Cellular phone signals are transmitted on two bands, one between 800 to 900 megahertz and the other between 1.8 gigahertz to 1.95 GHz.

Signals from a cellular phone transmit to a base-station, which relays it to the next station or other receivers on its network.

Radio signals between a cellular phone and the network fluctuate in strength depending on the business of the network.

Based in Los Angeles, Peter De Conceicao has been a professional researcher and writer since 2000. He has also worked as a writer for nonprofit educational organizations. Most recently, his work has appeared in Examiner.com as a news analyst and social commentator. He holds a degree in communications from Loyola Marymount University.

https://sciencing.com/difference-waves-cell-phone-waves-6624355.html

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SOLAR SAILS - Solar sails are a spacecraft propulsion method utilizing a curious quirk of photons. These particles of light have no mass and yet when they impinge on something, they can impart momentum and provide a tiny push. You get shoved by photons every time you step out into the sunshine but their incredibly small force is essentially unnoticeable to your body. In space, things take a different turn. The laws of physics state that every action must have an equal and opposite reaction, so, when photons from the sun bounce off a spaceship, the ship is propelled ever so slightly in a direction away from the sun. With a single photon the change is negligible but a large collection of them can provide significant thrust. Place a large, flat, mirror-like sheet in front of a spacecraft and the sun's power will push it forward. The material must also be strong and gossamer-thin in order to catch and control the sunlight. Solar sails can tack like regular sails to travel in many directions, according to the Planetary Society. The technology has an advantage over other propulsion methods because a ship does not need to carry fuel wherever it goes, instead relying on the freely-available light of stars. Since they get a continuous push from the sun, solar-sail-powered ships can constantly accelerate as they journey to the edge of the solar system, achieving super-fast speeds that would be much more difficult for chemical rockets.

This artist's conception shows a solar sail high above the Earth.

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Solar Sails

What Is a Solar Sail?

By Adam Mann

 

Like mariners of ancient days, cosmic adventurers might one day harness the power of sails to journey through the stars.

But rather than the ocean's wind, future space travelers would use sunlight to drive a technology known as a solar sail. 

How do solar sails work?

Solar sails are a spacecraft propulsion method utilizing a curious quirk of photons.

These particles of light have no mass and yet when they impinge on something, they can impart momentum and provide a tiny push.

You get shoved by photons every time you step out into the sunshine but their incredibly small force is essentially unnoticeable to your body. 

In space, things take a different turn.

The laws of physics state that every action must have an equal and opposite reaction, so, when photons from the sun bounce off a spaceship, the ship is propelled ever so slightly in a direction away from the sun.

With a single photon the change is negligible but a large collection of them can provide significant thrust. 

Place a large, flat, mirror-like sheet in front of a spacecraft and the sun's power will push it forward.

The material must also be strong and gossamer-thin in order to catch and control the sunlight.

Solar sails can tack like regular sails to travel in many directions, according to the Planetary Society.

The technology has an advantage over other propulsion methods because a ship does not need to carry fuel wherever it goes, instead relying on the freely-available light of stars. 

Since they get a continuous push from the sun, solar-sail-powered ships can constantly accelerate as they journey to the edge of the solar system, achieving super-fast speeds that would be much more difficult for chemical rockets.

Alternatively, solar sails can also be driven by gargantuan laser beams.

Examples of solar sails

NASA tested the concept of solar sailing in 1974 with its Mariner 10 spacecraft, which was designed to fly past Venus and Mercury.

When the probe ran out of fuel, mission control turned its solar panels to just the right angle to catch the sun's rays and push the spacecraft forward. 

The first human-made solar sail to successfully fly was the Japanese Space Exploration Agency's Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation Of the Sun (IKAROS) spacecraft.

The robot deployed its 46-foot-wide (14 meters) sail in June 2010 and proved the ability to control its direction and change orientation on command. 

That same year, NASA launched the tiny NanoSail-D demonstrator mission, which had a diamond-shaped sail 10 feet (3 m) to a side.

The probe unfurled its solar sail in 2011 and circled the Earth for eight months before burning up in the atmosphere.

Lightweight and with little room to carry fuel, small satellites are thought to be ideal candidates for this type of propulsion. 

In 2015, the Planetary Society launched the LightSail-1 spacecraft into orbit, which sported a 344-square-foot (32-square-m) solar sail, about the size of a boxing ring.

Despite some successes, and a selfie or two, the mission suffered from technical glitches and eventually stopped transmitting signals before entering the atmosphere a few weeks after it was launched. 

But the Planetary Society is back at it and has high hopes for their new LightSail-2 mission. Launching at the end of June 2019, the craft is about the size of a bread loaf and intends to release a similarly-sized sail as its predecessor.

Mission planners said that one day solar-sail-driven ships could travel to the edge of the solar system or beyond. 

The Breakthrough Starshot Initiative intends to do just that, sending lightweight microchip-sized probes to explore the nearest star system, Alpha Centauri, which is 4.3 light-years away.

Announced in 2016, the $100-million venture is investigating the feasibility of using a colossal Earth-based laser to accelerate the chips to 20% the speed of light and reaching Alpha Centauri in only 20 years. 

Adam Mann is a journalist specializing in astronomy and physics stories. His work has appeared in the Wall Street Journal, Wired, Nature, Science, New Scientist, and many other places. He lives in Oakland, California, where he enjoys riding his bike. Follow him on Twitter @adamspacemann.

https://www.space.com/solar-sail.html

E=mc2 - Albert Einstein - When Einstein wrote that equation down, he meant something different, usually referred to as "relativistic mass." Energy is mass. Mass is energy. They are equivalent; they are equal. They are the same thing. Momentum has energy. Speed has an energy associated with it – kinetic energy. A hot cup of coffee literally weighs more than a cold cup. A fast-moving spaceship literally weighs more than a slow one.

Albert Einstein's famous equation is both powerful and
complex as well as simple, when boiled down to its essence.

E=mc²

Why Does E=mc²?

By Paul Sutter, The Ohio State University

Let's play a game! The speed of light is just a number, right?

If you define your units, for example, what a "meter" and a "second" are, you can say that the speed of light is around 300,000,000 meters per second.

Or 670,000,000 "miles" per "hour," whatever those are.

What if, instead, we just said the speed of light was equal to…1. Just 1.

So, 1 what? I said: just 1. No miles, no seconds, no fortnights, no leagues. Just…1.

We're allowed to do it, because it's just a number, and we're picking a system where speed has no units. 

In this system, a jet airliner cruises at a snail's pace of 0.000001, or 0.0001 percent of the speed of light.

Two of the fastest human-made objects, the Helios probes, zoomed around the solar system at a whopping 0.00025! Look at them go!

Now that we've defined the speed of light to be 1, let's look at the most famous equation in physics: E = mc².

We know all the bits, but let's refresh: E is for energy, m is for mass and c is the constant speed of light. 

But in our newfangled unit system (called, for the technically minded, geometrized units), c equals 1, and that famous equation boils down to its essence:

E = m.

I'll even spell it out:

Energy = mass.

It doesn't get any clearer than that, folks.

Energy is mass. Mass is energy. They are equivalent; they are equal. They are the same thing.

Wait, wait, wait, you say as you look at me suspiciously. What about light?

Photons don't have any mass, but they sure do have plenty of energy. How else do plants eat?

You're right, photons don't have mass. But they do have momentum, which is how things like light sails (also called solar sails) get the oomph they need to glide around the solar system: Their propulsion comes from the sun's radiation pressure. 

And momentum has energy. But where's the momentum in E=m? It's looking like we don't have enough letters to cram it in.

The confusion comes about from the "m" used in E=m.

We normally think of "mass" as something concrete and simple. Hold a rock in your hand; it has mass. Throw it, and it has mass and momentum.

But that's not the "m" in E=m.

Instead, when Einstein wrote that equation down, he meant something different, usually referred to as "relativistic mass."

That term isn't used so much nowadays, because it causes so much head-scratching.

Let's take a step back and see what Einstein was thinking.

You remember kindergarten-level special relativity, and hearing things like "it's impossible to move at the speed of light, because the faster something goes, the more mass it has. To get to the speed of light, it has infinite mass, so it would be impossible to push!"

Yeah, well now it's time for first-grade-level special relativity.

A fundamental aspect of our universe is that there's a universal (and I really mean universal) speed limit: the same speed that light goes.

No matter what, you can never crack that speed. Let's see how that plays out in practice:

Let's say I give you a nice, solid shove and send you flying away at 0.9 — that is, 9/10th the speed of light. 

What if I catch up to you and give you the exact same shove, again.

You won't be going 18/10th the speed of light, because that's not allowed. You'll get closer to the speed of light, but never cross it.

So for the exact same force that I impact on your hopeless self, I don't move you as fast. I get less bang for the buck.

And the closer you get to the speed of light, the less effective my shoves will be: the first one may get you to 0.9, then the second to 0.99, then 0.999, then 0.9999.

Diminishing returns every time. In fact, it's as if you were getting more massive. That's exactly what more mass means: You get harder to push.

So what's going on? The answer is energy.

You still have the same old normal, everyday, rest mass that you always had.

But you're going really, really fast. And that speed has an energy associated with it – kinetic energy.

So it's like all that kinetic energy is acting like extra mass; either way I count it, you get harder to push, because of that fundamental speed limit.

In other words, you can say that energy is mass. Huh, whaddaya know.

Back to the "m" in E=m.

When physicists first started playing with those equations, they were well aware of the universal speed limit and its nonintuitive consequence that you get harder to push the faster you go.

So they encapsulated that concept into a single variable: the relativistic mass, which combines both the normal, everyday mass and the "effective" mass you gain from having loads of kinetic energy.

When we break up "m" into its different parts, we get:

E² = m² + p²

Or bringing back our friend c:

E² = m²c⁴ + p²c²

And we have another character joining the party: p, for momentum.

Photons don't have mass, but they do have momentum, so they still get energy.

In this view, mass is a kind of energy. But I just said above that energy acts like mass. What's the deal? Are we just talking in circles?

No. Mass is energy. Energy is mass. You can count things energywise or masswise. It doesn't matter. They’re the same thing.

A hot cup of coffee literally weighs more than a cold cup.

A fast-moving spaceship literally weighs more than a slow one.

A rock — or an atomic nucleus — is a compact, bundled-up ball of energy, and sometimes we can tease some of that energy out for a big boom. 

Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook, Twitter and Google+. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Live Science.

Paul Sutter is an astrophysicist at The Ohio State University and the chief scientist at COSI Science Center. Sutter is also host of the podcastsAsk a Spaceman and RealSpace, and the YouTube series Space In Your Face. Sutter contributed this article to Live Science's Expert Voices: Op-Ed & Insights. 

https://www.livescience.com/54852-why-does-e-mc-2.html

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