PLANE LANDING AT THE WRONG AIRPORT - How can a plane land at the wrong airport? - The likelihood of mistaken landings varies according to the landing system used by the pilot. Under an instrument landing system (ILS), the pilot or aircraft autoflight system tracks a set of crosshair signals all the way to the runway and therefore has little chance of wandering off the beam, provided that flight plan info is inputted correctly. On the other hand, pilots using a visual approach -- in which the crew recognizes the airport by sight and plots the most practical course and pattern to the runway -- have more rope with which to hang themselves. Between these two lie a number of "non-precision" instrument patterns, including the area navigation (RNAV) system that the Dreamlifter used. RNAV relies on inertial guidance and/or external course-plotting systems -- such as navigation satellites (GPS) and older VOR (very high frequency omnidirectional range) and DME (distance measuring equipment) signals -- to reach the field's vicinity. After that, it's up to the flight crew to sight the strip and land via a visual approach. This, too, leaves room for mistakes, which is why regulations require crews on visual approach to run through the checklist that confirms their location. We won't know the full story on the Dreamlifter mix-up until the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) completes its investigation.

The Boeing 747 Dreamlifter hangs out at Paine Field Airport in Washington. See that aircraft flying above? That should give you an idea of just how massive a Dreamlifter is. Now imagine that giant landing unexpectedly on a modest runway.

................................................................................................................................................

Plane Landing At The Wrong Airport

How can a plane land at the wrong airport?

BY NICHOLAS GERBIS

 

"Uh, ladies and gentlemen, this is the flight deck welcoming you into Wichita. On behalf of the crew, we'd like to thank you for choosing Airborne Airways, where your destination is always up in the air.

"You may now feel free to power up your electronic devices. Um ... in fact, if, uh, any of you have GPS, we'd like you to join us in a little game. A free bag of peanuts for the first passenger to tell us, uh, which airport we're at ... "

It might sound ridiculous, particularly in the age of GPS satellites, but airplanes do occasionally land at the wrong airport.

When they do, the consequences can include not only red-faced pilots, but also inconvenienced passengers, endangered planes and damaged airfields.

In November 2013, a Boeing 747 Dreamlifter touched down at Col. James Jabara Airport in Wichita, Kan.

Unfortunately for the Atlas Air crew and for Boeing's production schedule, it was supposed to land at McConnell Air Force Base about 10 miles (16 kilometers) to the southwest, not at a small, general aviation field more accustomed to private planes and small business jets.

The mix-up caused no immediate harm, but it put the plane in a bit of a pickle.

A Dreamlifter is a bloated tick of an aircraft -- a massive 747-400 modified with 65,000 cubic feet (1,840 cubic meters) of cargo space to haul 787 Dreamliner parts from global suppliers to assembly line locations.

It has a maximum takeoff weight of 803,000 pounds (364,000 kilograms).

With its 211.5-foot (64.4-meter) wingspan, it spreads more than double the width of the runway at Col. Jabara.

Several newspapers reported concerns that the 6,100-foot (1,860-meter) runway was too short for the massive plane to take off from.

Ultimately, the plane shed all unnecessary fuel and took off using only 4,500 feet (1,372 meters) of runway.

The city shut down nearby roads as a precaution against jet blast, but rubberneckers still managed to cause a few fender-benders -- the only damage caused by the incident, aside from a few broken runway lights and some wounded pride.

Getting the runway wrong doesn't always end so well, however.

In 2006, a Continental Boeing 757 landed on part of a Newark Liberty International Airport taxiway, the slow-traffic path airplanes take to and from gates. No one was injured, and no damage to the plane was reported.

Also in 2006, a Comair regional jet in Lexington, Ky., crashed and burst into flames after running out of room on the wrong runway. Forty-nine people died, with only the first officer surviving.

In the last decade, at least half a dozen such incidents have occurred in the United States alone, thanks to weather, flight crew errors or blunders by air traffic control.

To understand why, we need to look at how pilots land and at how airports are laid out.

Project Runway

The Boeing Dreamlifter example illustrates one of the most common causes of airport screwups: namely, two or more airfields lying in close proximity and sharing similar runway alignments.

Dozens of airstrips lie scattered across the metropolitan area of Wichita -- the self-proclaimed "Air Capital of the World," thanks to its strong aircraft industry presence.

The region surrounding McConnell Air Force Base alone boasts at least five.

Consequently, when the Atlas Air pilot got his position wrong, he got it even more wrong than he realized: He thought the plane had landed at Beech Field, not Col. Jabara.

"Giant 4241 Heavy, do you know which airport you're at?"

"Well we think we have a pretty good pulse. Let me ask you this ... how many airports... directly to the south of ... your 1-9 are there?"

The likelihood of mistaken landings varies according to the landing system used by the pilot.

Under an instrument landing system (ILS), the pilot or aircraft autoflight system tracks a set of crosshair signals all the way to the runway and therefore has little chance of wandering off the beam, provided that flight plan info is inputted correctly.

On the other hand, pilots using a visual approach -- in which the crew recognizes the airport by sight and plots the most practical course and pattern to the runway -- have more rope with which to hang themselves.

Both types of approach are common.

Between these two lie a number of "non-precision" instrument patterns, including the area navigation (RNAV) system that the Dreamlifter used. RNAV relies on inertial guidance and/or external course-plotting systems -- such as navigation satellites (GPS) and older VOR (very high frequency omnidirectional range) and DME (distance measuring equipment) signals -- to reach the field's vicinity.

After that, it's up to the flight crew to sight the strip and land via a visual approach. This, too, leaves room for mistakes, which is why regulations require crews on visual approach to run through the checklist that confirms their location.

We won't know the full story on the Dreamlifter mix-up until the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) completes its investigation, but we do know that, in Wichita's case, the confusion has occurred before, especially in bad weather.

In fact, one former Boeing employee told the Wichita Eagle that the company used to brief pilots about the problem, although he added that most pilots twigged to the mistake before landing.

Of course, Wichita isn't the only city where mistaken landings happen. It's not even the only one where they've happened multiple times.

KEEPING 'EM HONEST

Following the 2006 Comair incident, federal regulators and safety experts called for additional pilot training focused on runway confirmation for takeoff and landing.

Along these same lines, Honeywell International Inc. and Airbus have developed systems that alert crews when they have strayed from the assigned path, although the industry has yet to adopt them widely.

The Aviation Hall of Shame

The Boeing Dreamlifter incident was only one example of landing at the wrong airfield. Although rare, it happens more often than you might think.

On Jan. 12, 2014, a Southwest Airlines flight took off from Chicago's Midway International Airport and landed at Taney County's M. Graham Clark Downtown Airport in Missouri.

The plane was supposed to touch down at Branson Airport in southwest Missouri, a facility located 8.6 miles (13.8 kilometers) away.

The National Transportation Safety Board opened an investigation the following day. Passengers and crew were all fine, even with the short runway, thanks to some heavy braking.

In July 2012, a huge military C-17 cargo plane scheduled to arrive at MacDill Air Force Base near Tampa, Fla., instead put in at Peter O. Knight Airport, a small suburban field.

Again, the mistake involved two neighboring airfields bearing similar runway configurations and, again, fears were voiced about possible runway damage caused by the beefy craft. Base officials subsequently implemented new landing procedures.

The previous September, a Continental Connection flight bound for Lake Charles Regional Airport in Louisiana landed instead at nearby Southland Field, a strip more accustomed to handling crop dusters than commercial flights.

Similar incidents occurred at least twice there in the 1990s, including another Continental Express flight in 1996.

That crew attributed the mistake to Southland Field's similar compass heading and recently installed bright lights, and added that the strip they landed on bore the same number as their assigned Lake Charles runway.

Such incidents occur all around the globe.

In April 2009, a TAAG Angola Airlines flight bound for Zambia's Lusaka International Airport landed instead at an airfield used by the Zambian air force.

The pilot recognized his mistake but landed anyway to avoid frightening the passengers with a sudden pull-up.

But you don't have to work for one of the least-safe airlines in the world to commit such a gaffe.

In April 2009, a Turkish Airlines jet headed for Tbilisi, Georgia, instead put in at a military base 10 miles (16 kilometers) away.

Indeed, 10 miles seems to be a magic number in these cases.

Col. Jabara Airport is situated roughly that distance from McConnell Air Force Base; MacDill lies about 5 miles (8 kilometers) off the end of Peter O.

Knight's runway; Lake Charles Regional is located about 9 miles (14.5 kilometers) east of Southland.

There are exceptions, of course. Back in November 2007, the plane carrying then-presidential candidate Barack Obama landed in Des Moines, Iowa -- 100 miles (161 kilometers) from its scheduled stop in Cedar Rapids.

Maybe the pilot thought he'd like to be a few months early for the Iowa caucuses.

WHO CONTROLS THE CONTROLLERS?

In 1995, a Frankfurt-bound DC-10 landed in Brussels after air traffic controllers received and conveyed the wrong flight information.

Given the complexities of approaches in packed European airspace, the pilots did not suspect they were being led astray until they had nearly arrived in the Belgian capital.

By then, they were low enough on fuel that they opted to land despite being 189 miles (304 kilometers) and one country from their intended destination.

Lots More Information

Author's Note: How can a plane land at the wrong airport?

I sometimes think that we are surprised by stories like these only because we vastly overestimate the people and machines with which we entrust out lives.

Each year, roughly 4,000 American patients are left with surgical souvenirs on the wrong side of their sutures -- usually sponges, but occasionally clamps, scalpels or scissors.

Are surgical staffs incompetent? Far from it; but, like pilots, they perform a complex and occasionally chaotic task, often while fatigued.

While it might be easier in the short term to imagine ourselves safe in the hands of experts, maybe from time to time we should just face the uncomfortable fact that we are rolling the dice.

And why not? The odds are generally in our favor, even if today's surgeon or pilot is yesterday's college roommate -- you know, the one who drank a lot and never studied ...

HowStuffWorks got its start in 1998 at a college professor's kitchen table. From there, we quickly grew into an award-winning source of unbiased, reliable, easy-to-understand answers and explanations of how the world actually works. Today, our writers, editors, podcasters and video hosts share all the things we're most excited to learn about with nearly 30 million visitors to the site each month. Learn more about our authors, and maybe even become one yourself. You can learn more about us in our FAQ.

https://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/how-can-plane-land-at-wrong-airport.htm

COLLOIDAL SILVER - Is Colloidal Silver Helpful or Harmful? - Sometimes it's easy to tease out whether a much-hyped wellness regimen is more likely to be helpful or harmful. Looking to kick off a healthy eating plan? Maybe a whole foods-based diet is worth a shot. Hoping to curb anxiety? Hey, why not try mindfulness? Thinking a celebrity-endorsed diet pill will solve all your problems? Might want to rethink that one. See? Simple! But sometimes it's a lot harder to discern if certain supplements and strategies purported to boost your health will improve your overall well-being or actually take a serious toll on it. Case in point: colloidal silver. Typically marketed as an oral dietary supplement, colloidal silver is a suspension of tiny silver particles in liquid. While silver is commonly used as an antimicrobial agent in drugs and wound dressings, advocates of colloidal silver claim the solution has been used for centuries to treat everything from pneumonia and flu to skin rashes and even cancer. Silver has been used for thousands of years for its antimicrobial properties, It's commonly used in hospitals, and NASA uses it to disinfect water on the space station. NASA isn't the only agency to take major issue with the supplement. The U.S. FDA stated, over-the-counter drug products containing colloidal silver ingredients or silver salts for internal or external use are not generally recognized as safe and effective and are misbranded. The FDA — and the Federal Trade Commission — have even gone as far as taking action against some colloidal silver manufacturers for making unfounded health claims.

Colloidal silver has been around for eons. But it's gaining in popularity again, despite health warnings. 

....................................................................................................................................................

Colloidal Silver

Is Colloidal Silver Helpful or Harmful?

BY MICHELLE KONSTANTINOVSKY

 

Sometimes it's easy to tease out whether a much-hyped wellness regimen is more likely to be helpful or harmful.

Looking to kick off a healthy eating plan? Maybe a whole foods-based diet is worth a shot.

Hoping to curb anxiety? Hey, why not try mindfulness?

Thinking a celebrity-endorsed diet pill will solve all your problems? Might want to rethink that one.

See? Simple!

But sometimes it's a lot harder to discern if certain supplements and strategies purported to boost your health will improve your overall well-being or actually take a serious toll on it.

Case in point: colloidal silver.

Typically marketed as an oral dietary supplement (though it also comes in topical and injectable formulations), colloidal silver is a suspension of tiny silver particles in liquid.

While silver is commonly used as an antimicrobial agent in drugs and wound dressings, advocates of colloidal silver claim the solution has been used for centuries to treat everything from pneumonia and flu to skin rashes and even cancer.

Helpful?

"Silver has been used for thousands of years for its antimicrobial properties," says New York-city-based integrative medicine nurse practitioner and life coach, Victoria Albina, FNP-c, MPH.

"It's commonly used in hospitals, and NASA uses it to disinfect water on the space station."

While NASA does use silver in the potable water system of its International Space Station, the agency acknowledges that "recent studies have shown the possible toxicity of colloidal silver to humans," and "researchers are currently developing and testing a simple technique that will enable crew members to test silver levels in the water system in less than two minutes."

NASA isn't the only agency to take major issue with the supplement.

In 1999, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stated, over-the-counter drug products containing colloidal silver ingredients or silver salts for internal or external use are not generally recognized as safe and effective and are misbranded.

The FDA — and the Federal Trade Commission — have even gone as far as taking action against some colloidal silver manufacturers for making unfounded health claims.

And the Mayo Clinic suggest colloidal silver "isn't considered safe or effective for any of the health claims manufacturers make."

But despite the claims, health care providers continue to integrate colloidal silver into their toolkits. "In my practice, I use silver in the hydrosol form, and I use it sparingly," Albina says.

"You have to be very careful to make sure you're using a very good quality form."

Albina says that if she does choose to treat a patient with silver, she uses Sovereign Silver, which has been producing and distributing products in the U.S. since 1999.

Or Harmful?

"Colloidal silver is not something I recommend for my patients," says naturopathic doctor, nurse practitioner, and founder of Seven Senses Integrative Medicine and Holistic Coaching, Erica Matluck.

"Patients have come to me complaining of skin discoloration after using over-the-counter colloidal silver products for antimicrobial purposes."

Matluck's patients aren't alone: One common known side effect of the supplement is argyria, a buildup of silver in the body's tissue that can cause skin to take on a bluish-gray tint.

But that's not the worst possible outcome — although rare, health problems like kidney damage and neurological problems including seizures have also occurred as a result of excessive colloidal silver doses.

"Colloidal silver is sometimes recommended for its antibacterial properties, but unfortunately the scientific evidence is lacking," says Washington D.C.-based family medicine physician, Shilpi Agarwal, M.D.

"The FDA has deemed it likely unsafe and it is hard to know what you are actually get in terms of percentage, potency, etc., because there are no regulations. I would avoid it."

Depending on the ailment she's trying to treat, Matluck says she relies on other pharmaceutical alternatives for issues like upper respiratory infections or infected skin wounds.

"In my experience, there are plenty of nonpharmacologic antimicrobial agents that are safer and more effective than colloidal silver," she says.

"It really depends what you are treating, but garlic, oregano oil, and berberine are all potent options."

The bottom line: there are no one-size-fits-all magic (silver) bullets that heal every ailment in every person. Read up on all the government warnings, know the potential risks of any medication or supplement you use, and work with a health care provider you trust.

NOW THAT'S INTERESTING

Silver in its pure form is too soft for things like jewelry and, well, silverware, so your family heirlooms and best tableware is likely made of sterling silver, which is 92.5 percent silver, and 7.5 percent copper or other metal.

Michelle Konstantinovsky is a San Francisco-based journalist who's written on everything from the Beagle Brigade and border walls to cricket farms and TV scheduling for HowStuffWorks. She earned her master's degree from U.C. Berkeley's Graduate School of Journalism and she's written on health and wellness topics for outlets including Cosmopolitan, O: The Oprah Magazine, Marie Claire, Teen Vogue and more. Michelle loves music, manatees and terrible teen movies from the early 2000s

https://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/natural-medicine/alternative/is-colloidal-silver-helpful-or-harmful.htm 

GENERATION OF SOLID WASTE - Generation of solid waste is a result of natural, human and animal activities. Knowledge of generation of solid waste is important in the planning, designing and operation of solid waste management system. Generation of solid waste has two aspects: One is the quality of solid waste and the other is the quantity of solid waste. Quality includes the sources, types and typical composition of solid waste along with its properties whereas the quantity represents the generation rates and total quantities and volumes of waste generated. Determination of the generation rate of solid waste is the most important parameter required in the design of management and subsystems. Solid waste is usually quantified in terms of generation rate i.e. amount of waste generated by a person or a facility in one day. The quality of solid waste not only encompasses different types and sources of solid waste but also include its physical chemical and biological characteristics. Care is required in using volume measurement because of the distinction between compacted and loosened waste. Both have different weight and volume. Weight of the solid wastes is the most accurate and preferred basis for records regardless of whether the waste is loose or compacted. Counting the number of loads over a specified period of time. Knowing the weight of each load, the maximum and average generation rates can be determined.

..................................................................................................................................................

Generation of Solid Waste

By: Haseeb Jamal

 

Generation of solid waste is a result of natural, human and animal activities.

Knowledge of generation of solid waste is important in the planning, designing and operation of solid waste management system.

Generation of solid waste has two aspects: One is the quality of solid waste and the other is the quantity of solid waste.

Quality includes the sources, types and typical composition of solid waste along with its properties whereas the quantity represents the generation rates and total quantities and volumes of waste generated.

Quantity of the Solid Waste

Determination of the generation rate of solid waste is the most important parameter required in the design of management and subsystems.

Solid waste is usually quantified in terms of generation rate i.e. amount of waste generated by a person or a facility in one day.

The estimated generation rate for municipal solid waste of Peshawar as reported is 0.65 kg/capita/day.

Solid Waste in a Scrapyard

Quality of Solid Waste

The quality of solid waste not only encompasses different types and sources of solid waste but also include its physical chemical and biological characteristics.

Measures of Quantities

·            Volume measurement.

·            Weight measurement.

Care is required in using volume measurement because of the distinction between compacted and loosened waste.

Both have different weight and volume.

Weight of the solid wastes is the most accurate and preferred basis for records regardless of whether the waste is loose or compacted.

Units of Measurement

·        Residential and Commercial – kilogram per capita per day (Kg/c/d).

·        Agricultural – Kilogram per hectare per year (kg/ ha/ year).

Methods Used to Determine Generation Rate

Load count analysis:

Counting the number of loads over a specified period of time. Knowing the weight of each load, the maximum and average generation rates can be determined.

Weight-Volume analysis:

Measuring the volume of the truck and knowing the average density of waste, the generation rates can be determined.

Material Balance approach:

Indirect calculation of generated waste, by drawing correlations between activities and waste generation.

For example, a commercial activity worth X Million Rupees will generate Y kgs of waste.

If we have the data, then such correlations can be established for all areas. Expensive and inaccurate in the beginning, but saves a lot in the long run.

Factors Affecting Generation Rates

Factors that affect the generation rate of solid waste include:

·        Geographical location – related primarily to the different climate and also the culture that can influence both the amount generated and collection operation.

·        Season of the year.

·        Frequency of collection of solid waste.

·        Characteristics of population: e.g. Income and education levels, also profession classes.

·        Extent of salvage and recycling of wastes.

·        Legislation regarding solid waste generation, collection and its disposal.

·        Public attitude towards solid waste.

Haseeb Jamal. I am a Civil Engineer, graduated from University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan in 2010. I also have a PG-Diploma in Disaster Management and MS in Urban Infrastructure Engineering (In Progress). My expertise include civil related softwares like AutoCAD, SAP2000, MS Project, Primavera, MS Office and GIS. My technical skills include project management, monitoring and evaluation, structural assessment, disaster risk management, Quantity survey, land survey, material testing, site management and technical writing. I am trained in writing project progress reports as well as proposals and concept papers. I have also received advanced training on surveying, proposal writing, Monitoring and Evaluation of projects as well as organizations.

I have worked as Project Engineer at National Research and Development Foundation, Peshawar and CENCON Associates. I also worked with Spectra Engineering Solutions as Senior Civil Engineer in monitoring of World Bank and UNDP funded projects all over Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA. Currently, I am working as Deputy Manager Development at NayaTel, Peshawar.

https://www.aboutcivil.org/generation-of-solid-waste